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Functions of forest
- Evapotranspiration
- Coniferous woods compared to broad leaf deciduous woods have shallower roots which leads to less ability to retain rain falls and land slides
Malaria from view point of environmental change
Africa
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SE Asia
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- Anopheles gambiae complex
- Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto
- Anopheles arabiensis
- Anopheles funestus
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- Anopheles dirus complex
- Anopheles minimus complex
- Anopheles sundaicus complex
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- Human cases are aggregated in deforested and reclaimed areas
- uncontrolled land border crossings keep importing/exporting cases
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- Human cases are aggregated in natural forested areas
- especially around land border areas
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species
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distribution
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biting preference
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resting site
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breeding site
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Anopheles arabiensis
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Africa
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livestock
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outside
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small, open water body = more artificial/deforested/reclaimed area where also provides higher water temp.
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Anopheles gambiae s.s.
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human
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inside house
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Anopheles funestus
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large vegetated water body = more natural area
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Anopheles dirus complex
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SE Asia
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|
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forested area
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Anopheles minimus complex
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|
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hilly forested area
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Anopheles sundaicus complex
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coastal area
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Factors affecting malaria endemicity
- Global warming
- Population (density) increase
- Importation of malaria beyond borders (esp. land borders)
- Plasmodium drug resistance
- Degradation of control system
- Land use change
- Intense rainfall by oceanic environmental changes
Air pollution
- Approx. 6 million deaths are attributable to air pollution in 2019
Classification of air pollutants
Primary
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Secondary
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- Carbon compounds
- Nitrogen compounds
- Particulate matter
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- NO2, HNO3
- O3
- Sufate, nitrates, organic aerosols
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Natural source
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Anthropogenic source
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- Wind blown dust, desert dust
- Pollen, aero-allergens
- Smoke, fly ash, gases from forest fires
- Volcanic ash and gases
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- Industry
- Transportation system
- Consumer and commercial product
- Commercial and residential heating
- Agriculture, livestock
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Temperature inversion
- Air pollutants rise up in higher atmospheric layer and cap/cover a land resulting in that relatively colder air is trapped underneath capping warmer air
Monitoring and sensing
- Ground-based monitoring
- Remote sensing by satellites
- Personal monitoring by small sensor
- Atmospheric modeling
Health effects by particulate matter
- Lung cancer
- Acute LRI
- Stroke
- Ischemic heart disease
- COPD
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- Allergic disease?
- Diabetes?
- Cognitive dysfunction?
- Low birth weight?
- Diarrhea?
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How to assess exposures
- Direct
- Personal monitoring
- Biological marker measurement
- Indirect
- Environmental monitoring
- Mathematical model
- Questionnaire
- Diary
Population Attributable Fraction (PAF)
- The fraction of all cases of a particular disease or other adverse condition in a population that is attributable to a specific exposure
[math]\displaystyle{ PAF = \frac{E(RR-1)}{E(RR-1)+1} }[/math]
where
- [math]\displaystyle{ E }[/math] is proportion of exposed among population
- [math]\displaystyle{ RR }[/math] is relative risk of the exposure derived from air pollution mortality function