「Environmental health」の版間の差分

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(ページの作成:「==Functions of forest== *Evapotranspiration *Coniferous woods compared to broad leaf deciduous woods have shallower roots which leads to less ability to retain rain falls…」)
 
 
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3行目: 3行目:
 
*Coniferous woods compared to broad leaf deciduous woods have shallower roots which leads to less ability to retain rain falls and land slides
 
*Coniferous woods compared to broad leaf deciduous woods have shallower roots which leads to less ability to retain rain falls and land slides
  
−
==Malaria vectors==
+
==Malaria from view point of environmental change==
 
{|class="wikitable"
 
{|class="wikitable"
 
|-
 
|-
 
!Africa
 
!Africa
−
!Asia
+
!SE Asia
 
|-
 
|-
 
|
 
|
15行目: 15行目:
 
*''Anopheles funestus''
 
*''Anopheles funestus''
 
|
 
|
 +
*''Anopheles dirus'' complex
 +
*''Anopheles minimus'' complex
 +
*''Anopheles sundaicus'' complex
 +
|-
 +
|
 +
*Human cases are aggregated in deforested and reclaimed areas
 +
**uncontrolled land border crossings keep importing/exporting cases
 +
|
 +
*Human cases are aggregated in natural forested areas
 +
**especially around land border areas
 
|}
 
|}
  
26行目: 36行目:
 
|-
 
|-
 
!''Anopheles arabiensis''
 
!''Anopheles arabiensis''
−
|Africa
+
|rowspan="3"|Africa
 
|livestock
 
|livestock
 
|outside
 
|outside
−
|rowspan="2"|small, open water body
+
|rowspan="2"|small, open water body<br>= more artificial/deforested/reclaimed area<br>where also provides higher water temp.
 
|-
 
|-
 
!''Anopheles gambiae'' s.s.
 
!''Anopheles gambiae'' s.s.
−
|Africa
 
 
|rowspan="2"|human
 
|rowspan="2"|human
−
|inside house
+
|rowspan="2"|inside house
 
|-
 
|-
 
!''Anopheles funestus''
 
!''Anopheles funestus''
−
|Africa
+
|large vegetated water body<br>= more natural area
−
|large vegetated water body
+
|-
 +
!''Anopheles dirus'' complex
 +
|rowspan="3"|SE Asia
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|forested area
 +
|-
 +
!''Anopheles minimus'' complex
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|hilly forested area
 +
|-
 +
!''Anopheles sundaicus'' complex
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|coastal area
 
|}
 
|}
 +
 +
===Factors affecting malaria endemicity===
 +
*Global warming
 +
*Population (density) increase
 +
*Importation of malaria beyond borders (esp. land borders)
 +
*''Plasmodium'' drug resistance
 +
*Degradation of control system
 +
*Land use change
 +
*Intense rainfall by oceanic environmental changes
 +
 +
==Air pollution==
 +
*Approx. 6 million deaths are attributable to air pollution in 2019
 +
 +
===Classification of air pollutants===
 +
{|class="wikitable"
 +
|-
 +
!Primary
 +
!Secondary
 +
|-
 +
|
 +
*Carbon compounds
 +
**CO, CO<sub>2</sub>, CH<sub>4</sub>, VOCs
 +
*Nitrogen compounds
 +
**NO, N<sub>2</sub>O, NH<sub>3</sub>
 +
*Particulate matter
 +
**PM2.5
 +
|
 +
*(NO→)
 +
::NO<sub>2</sub>, HNO<sub>3</sub>
 +
*(VOCs→)
 +
::O<sub>3</sub>
 +
*(gaseous pollutants→)
 +
::Sufate, nitrates, organic aerosols
 +
|}
 +
 +
{|class="wikitable"
 +
|-
 +
!Natural source
 +
!Anthropogenic source
 +
|-
 +
|
 +
*Wind blown dust, desert dust
 +
*Pollen, aero-allergens
 +
*Smoke, fly ash, gases from forest fires
 +
*Volcanic ash and gases
 +
|
 +
*Industry
 +
*Transportation system
 +
*Consumer and commercial product
 +
*Commercial and residential heating
 +
*Agriculture, livestock
 +
|}
 +
 +
===Temperature inversion===
 +
*Air pollutants rise up in higher atmospheric layer and cap/cover a land resulting in that relatively colder air is trapped underneath capping warmer air
 +
 +
===Monitoring and sensing===
 +
*Ground-based monitoring
 +
**[https://waqi.info/ Real-time Air Quality Index Visual Map]
 +
*Remote sensing by satellites
 +
*Personal monitoring by small sensor
 +
*Atmospheric modeling
 +
 +
===Health effects by particulate matter===
 +
{|class="wikitable"
 +
|-
 +
|
 +
*Lung cancer
 +
*Acute LRI
 +
*Stroke
 +
*Ischemic heart disease
 +
*COPD
 +
|
 +
*Allergic disease?
 +
*Diabetes?
 +
*Cognitive dysfunction?
 +
*Low birth weight?
 +
*Diarrhea?
 +
|}
 +
 +
===How to assess exposures===
 +
*Direct
 +
**Personal monitoring
 +
**Biological marker measurement
 +
*Indirect
 +
**Environmental monitoring
 +
**Mathematical model
 +
**Questionnaire
 +
**Diary
 +
 +
===Population Attributable Fraction (PAF)===
 +
*The fraction of all cases of a particular disease or other adverse condition in a population that is attributable to a specific exposure
 +
<math>PAF = \frac{E(RR-1)}{E(RR-1)+1}</math>
 +
 +
where
 +
*<math>E</math> is proportion of exposed among population
 +
*<math>RR</math> is relative risk of the exposure derived from air pollution mortality function

2022年12月15日 (木) 16:04時点における最新版

Functions of forest

  • Evapotranspiration
  • Coniferous woods compared to broad leaf deciduous woods have shallower roots which leads to less ability to retain rain falls and land slides

Malaria from view point of environmental change

Africa SE Asia
  • Anopheles gambiae complex
    • Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto
    • Anopheles arabiensis
  • Anopheles funestus
  • Anopheles dirus complex
  • Anopheles minimus complex
  • Anopheles sundaicus complex
  • Human cases are aggregated in deforested and reclaimed areas
    • uncontrolled land border crossings keep importing/exporting cases
  • Human cases are aggregated in natural forested areas
    • especially around land border areas
species distribution biting preference resting site breeding site
Anopheles arabiensis Africa livestock outside small, open water body
= more artificial/deforested/reclaimed area
where also provides higher water temp.
Anopheles gambiae s.s. human inside house
Anopheles funestus large vegetated water body
= more natural area
Anopheles dirus complex SE Asia forested area
Anopheles minimus complex hilly forested area
Anopheles sundaicus complex coastal area

Factors affecting malaria endemicity

  • Global warming
  • Population (density) increase
  • Importation of malaria beyond borders (esp. land borders)
  • Plasmodium drug resistance
  • Degradation of control system
  • Land use change
  • Intense rainfall by oceanic environmental changes

Air pollution

  • Approx. 6 million deaths are attributable to air pollution in 2019

Classification of air pollutants

Primary Secondary
  • Carbon compounds
    • CO, CO2, CH4, VOCs
  • Nitrogen compounds
    • NO, N2O, NH3
  • Particulate matter
    • PM2.5
  • (NO→)
NO2, HNO3
  • (VOCs→)
O3
  • (gaseous pollutants→)
Sufate, nitrates, organic aerosols
Natural source Anthropogenic source
  • Wind blown dust, desert dust
  • Pollen, aero-allergens
  • Smoke, fly ash, gases from forest fires
  • Volcanic ash and gases
  • Industry
  • Transportation system
  • Consumer and commercial product
  • Commercial and residential heating
  • Agriculture, livestock

Temperature inversion

  • Air pollutants rise up in higher atmospheric layer and cap/cover a land resulting in that relatively colder air is trapped underneath capping warmer air

Monitoring and sensing

Health effects by particulate matter

  • Lung cancer
  • Acute LRI
  • Stroke
  • Ischemic heart disease
  • COPD
  • Allergic disease?
  • Diabetes?
  • Cognitive dysfunction?
  • Low birth weight?
  • Diarrhea?

How to assess exposures

  • Direct
    • Personal monitoring
    • Biological marker measurement
  • Indirect
    • Environmental monitoring
    • Mathematical model
    • Questionnaire
    • Diary

Population Attributable Fraction (PAF)

  • The fraction of all cases of a particular disease or other adverse condition in a population that is attributable to a specific exposure

[math]\displaystyle{ PAF = \frac{E(RR-1)}{E(RR-1)+1} }[/math]

where

  • [math]\displaystyle{ E }[/math] is proportion of exposed among population
  • [math]\displaystyle{ RR }[/math] is relative risk of the exposure derived from air pollution mortality function
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