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*Coniferous woods compared to broad leaf deciduous woods have shallower roots which leads to less ability to retain rain falls and land slides
==Malaria vectorsfrom view point of environmental change==
{|class="wikitable"
|-
!Africa
!SE Asia
|-
|
*''Anopheles funestus''
|
*''Anopheles dirus'' complex
*''Anopheles minimus'' complex
*''Anopheles sundaicus'' complex
|-
|
*Human cases are aggregated in deforested and reclaimed areas
**uncontrolled land border crossings keep importing/exporting cases
|
*Human cases are aggregated in natural forested areas
**especially around land border areas
|}
|livestock
|outside
|rowspan="2"|small, open water body<br>= more artificial/deforested/reclaimed area<br>where also provides higher water temp.
|-
!''Anopheles gambiae'' s.s.
!''Anopheles funestus''
|large vegetated water body<br>= more natural area
|-
!''Anopheles dirus'' complex
|rowspan="3"|SE Asia
|
|
|forested area
|-
!''Anopheles minimus'' complex
|
|
|hilly forested area
|-
!''Anopheles sundaicus'' complex
|
|
|coastal area
|}
===Factors affecting malaria endemicity===
*Global warming
*Population (density) increase
*Importation of malaria beyond borders (esp. land borders)
*''Plasmodium'' drug resistance
*Degradation of control system
*Land use change
*Intense rainfall by oceanic environmental changes
==Air pollution==
*Approx. 6 million deaths are attributable to air pollution in 2019
===Classification of air pollutants===
{|class="wikitable"
|-
!Primary
!Secondary
|-
|
*Carbon compounds
**CO, CO<sub>2</sub>, CH<sub>4</sub>, VOCs
*Nitrogen compounds
**NO, N<sub>2</sub>O, NH<sub>3</sub>
*Particulate matter
**PM2.5
|
*(NO→)
::NO<sub>2</sub>, HNO<sub>3</sub>
*(VOCs→)
::O<sub>3</sub>
*(gaseous pollutants→)
::Sufate, nitrates, organic aerosols
|}
{|class="wikitable"
|-
!Natural source
!Anthropogenic source
|-
|
*Wind blown dust, desert dust
*Pollen, aero-allergens
*Smoke, fly ash, gases from forest fires
*Volcanic ash and gases
|
*Industry
*Transportation system
*Consumer and commercial product
*Commercial and residential heating
*Agriculture, livestock
|}
===Temperature inversion===
*Air pollutants rise up in higher atmospheric layer and cap/cover a land resulting in that relatively colder air is trapped underneath capping warmer air
===Monitoring and sensing===
*Ground-based monitoring
**[https://waqi.info/ Real-time Air Quality Index Visual Map]
*Remote sensing by satellites
*Personal monitoring by small sensor
*Atmospheric modeling
===Health effects by particulate matter===
{|class="wikitable"
|-
|
*Lung cancer
*Acute LRI
*Stroke
*Ischemic heart disease
*COPD
|
*Allergic disease?
*Diabetes?
*Cognitive dysfunction?
*Low birth weight?
*Diarrhea?
|}
===How to assess exposures===
*Direct
**Personal monitoring
**Biological marker measurement
*Indirect
**Environmental monitoring
**Mathematical model
**Questionnaire
**Diary
===Population Attributable Fraction (PAF)===
*The fraction of all cases of a particular disease or other adverse condition in a population that is attributable to a specific exposure
<math>PAF = \frac{E(RR-1)}{E(RR-1)+1}</math>
where
*<math>E</math> is proportion of exposed among population
*<math>RR</math> is relative risk of the exposure derived from air pollution mortality function
