Environmental health

Functions of forest

• Evapotranspiration
• Coniferous woods compared to broad leaf deciduous woods have shallower roots which leads to less ability to retain rain falls and land slides

Malaria from view point of environmental change

Africa	SE Asia
Anopheles gambiae complex Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto Anopheles arabiensis Anopheles funestus	Anopheles dirus complex Anopheles minimus complex Anopheles sundaicus complex
Human cases are aggregated in deforested and reclaimed areas	Human cases are aggregated in natural forested areas especially around land border areas

species	distribution	biting preference	resting site	breeding site
Anopheles arabiensis	Africa	livestock	outside	small, open water body = more artificial/deforested/reclaimed area where also provides higher water temp.
Anopheles gambiae s.s.		human	inside house
Anopheles funestus				large vegetated water body = more natural area
Anopheles dirus complex	SE Asia			forested area
Anopheles minimus complex				hilly forested area
Anopheles sundaicus complex				coastal area

Factors affecting malaria endemicity

• Global warming
• Population (density) increase
• Importation of malaria beyond borders (esp. land borders)
• Plasmodium drug resistance
• Degradation of control system
• Land use change
• Intense rainfall by oceanic environmental changes