Environmental health

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Functions of forest

  • Evapotranspiration
  • Coniferous woods compared to broad leaf deciduous woods have shallower roots which leads to less ability to retain rain falls and land slides

Malaria from view point of environmental change

Africa SE Asia
  • Anopheles gambiae complex
    • Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto
    • Anopheles arabiensis
  • Anopheles funestus
  • Anopheles dirus complex
  • Anopheles minimus complex
  • Anopheles sundaicus complex
  • Human cases are aggregated in deforested and reclaimed areas
    • uncontrolled land border crossings keep importing/exporting cases
  • Human cases are aggregated in natural forested areas
    • especially around land border areas
species distribution biting preference resting site breeding site
Anopheles arabiensis Africa livestock outside small, open water body
= more artificial/deforested/reclaimed area
where also provides higher water temp.
Anopheles gambiae s.s. human inside house
Anopheles funestus large vegetated water body
= more natural area
Anopheles dirus complex SE Asia forested area
Anopheles minimus complex hilly forested area
Anopheles sundaicus complex coastal area

Factors affecting malaria endemicity

  • Global warming
  • Population (density) increase
  • Importation of malaria beyond borders (esp. land borders)
  • Plasmodium drug resistance
  • Degradation of control system
  • Land use change
  • Intense rainfall by oceanic environmental changes